Words in English are not always spelled as they are pronounced. Spelling in English follows some basic rules and the majority of English words (around 75%) follow these rules. You can learn the rules but there are always exceptions to the rules that need to be learned too.
The main basic spelling rules of English relate to: prefixes and suffixes; spelling and plurals; doubling letters; dropping and adding letters; verb forms. This section focuses on British English but also covers some basic differences in spelling between British and American English.
Spelling: prefixes
When there is a prefix, we do not normally add or take away more letters:
dis + obey→ disobey | mis + spell→ misspell |
dis + satisfied→ dissatisfied | over + hear→ overhear |
in + humane→ inhumane | super + human→ superhuman |
in + sane→ insane | un + natural→ unnatural |
inter + national→ international | un + sure→ unsure |
mis + rule→ misrule | under + pass→ underpass |
Prefixesil-,im-,ir-
We commonly change the prefixin-toil-, im-orir-when the first letter of a word isl, m, p, orr.
inbecomesil-beforel | inbecomesim-beforemorp | inbecomesir-beforer |
illegible illiterate illogical | immoral immature impossible | irrelevant irresponsible irreplaceable |
Spelling and plurals
There are rules for the plurals of regular nouns and the -sforms of regular verbs.
The general rule is add -s:
bring → bringsday → daysear → earssmile → smilesspeak → speakstown → towns |
If the ending is pronounced as ‘ch’/tʃ/or ‘s’/s/, we add-es/ɪz/:
noun plurals | verb-sforms |
bus→ buses | cross → crosses |
church → churches | fetch → fetches |
kiss → kisses | guess → guesses |
If a word ends in an -e, we add an -s:
base→ basesface→ facesjudge→ judgeslose→ loses |
If the word ends in a consonant plus -y, we change -ytoiand add -es:
noun plurals | verb-sforms |
baby → babies | marry → marries |
opportunity → opportunities | reply → replies |
We add-esto some words ending in -o:
noun plurals | noun plurals/verb-sforms |
tomato → tomatoes | echo → echoes |
cargo → cargoes | embargo → embargoes |
hero → heroes | go → goes(go[n] =attempt) |
However, some words ending in -oonly require -s:videos, discos, pianos, memos, photos.
For some nouns ending in-for-fe, we form the plural by changing the-for-feto-ves:
loaf → loavesshelf → shelvesthief → thieveswife → wives
See also:
Forming the plural of nouns
Spelling: doubling consonants
We often double the final consonant of a word (b, d, g, l, m, n, p, r, t) when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added (-ed, -er, -est, -ing):
hop + -ed → hopped | slim + -ing → slimming |
red + -ish → reddish | thin + -er → thinner |
rub + -ed → rubbed | travel+ -er → traveller |
sit + -ing → sitting | wet + -er →wetter |
When we add a suffix to a word with more than one syllable, we double the consonant only when the word ends in a stressed syllable (the stressed syllable of the base form is in bold):
admit+ -ing → admitting | prefer+ -ed → preferred |
forget+ -ing → forgetting | transmit+ -ed → transmitted |
occur+ -ence → occurrence | upset+ -ing → upsetting |
Compare, however,visitorenterwhere the spoken stress is on the first syllable:
visit → visiting | enter → entered |
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Note too that in each case the vowel before the last consonant is a short vowel.
We don’t double the final consonant before a suffix:
– if the word ends in two written consonants, e.g.export= exported, find =finding, insist =insisted, lift= lifted, persist= persistence
– if there are two written vowels together in the word, e.g.meeting, rained, weaken, trainer, repeated.
Irregular forms and exceptions
Some monosyllabic words ending in -sare irregular. We normally do not double the-s, although some doubled forms will be seen. For example:bussesandbuses; gassesandgases. (Bussesandgassesare not common.)
Some words, several of them ending inl, with more than two syllables, have a double consonant even though the last syllable is not stressed; for example,labelling, traveller, equalled, handicapped, programmed.
In American English the single consonant spelling is usually more common:labeling, traveler.
Spelling: dropping and adding letters
The final -e
We often drop the final-ewhen a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word:
approve + -al → approval | hope + -ing → hoping |
fame + -ous → famous | invite + -ation → invitation |
hate + -ed → hated | note + -able → notable |
We keep the -eindyeing(fromdye) andsingeing(fromsinge) to differentiate them from similar words e.g.dying(fromdie) andsinging(fromsing).
When a suffix begins with a consonant (e.g. -less, -ful, -ly, -ment) we do not normally drop the -e:
definitelyexcitementforcefulhopelesslatelywidely
Sometimes we do drop the -e:
argue→argument | true→truly |
due→duly | whole→wholly |
Some words have alternative forms with or without an -e: for example,acknowledgementoracknowledgment, andjudgementorjudgment.
The suffix-ally
The suffix-allyis added to adjectives ending in-icto form adverbs:
basic → basically
realistic → realistically
tragic → tragically
BUT:publicly
Changing -yto -i
When we add a suffix to a word ending in a consonant + -y, we normally change -ytoi:
amplify + -er → amplifier | happy + -ly → happily |
busy + -ness → business | hurry + -s → hurries |
day + -ly → daily | purify + -cation → purification |
easy + -ly → easily | reply + -ed → replied |
fury + -ous → furious | spy + -s → spies |
Some words with one syllable keep the -ybefore a suffix:dryness, shyness, slyness.
We keep-ybefore-ing: studying, worrying.
We keep-ybefore’s:the fly’s wings, Andy’s house.
We usually keep the -yin most words that end in a vowel + -y:
buy → buyer
destroy → destroys
BUT:day→daily
Spelling:ieorei?
If in doubt aboutieorei, when the sound of the vowel is as inbrief/i:/, we spell itie; but after the letterc, we spell itei:
ie | eiafterc |
achieve | ceiling |
belief | conceit |
diesel | deceive |
niece | receipt |
relieve | perceive |
Words in which -yhas changed toiend in -ieseven after ac:
emergency → emergencies
bureaucracy → bureaucracies
In most words that do not have the pronunciation/i:/as inbrief, the usual order isebeforei, e.g.neighbour,leisure, height;friend,ancient,scienceare common exceptions.
Spelling and verb forms
Past and-edforms
The past and-edforms are the same in regular verbs. The following are the spelling rules for regular verbs.
We add-edto the base form of the verb:
clean → cleanedecho → echoedemail → emailedsail → sailed
If the word ends in-e, we add -dto the base form of the verb:
agree → agreeddine → dinedlove → loved
If the word ends in a consonant + -y, we change the -ytoibefore-ed:
apply → appliedcry → cried
There are three common exceptions, where we change the -ytoiafter a vowel and just -dis added:
pay → paidsay → said
-ingforms
The general rule is add-ingto the base form of the verb:
go → goinghurry → hurryingplay → playing
If the word ends in-e, we drop the -ebefore-ing:
love → lovinglose → losingwrite → writing
But if the word ends in-ee, -ye, or-oe, we keep the -e:
agree → agreeingdye → dyeing(compare:die/dying)see → seeing
If the word ends in -ie, we change the -ito -yand we drop the -ebefore -ing:
die→dyinglie → lyingtie→tying
Addition of final -eto indicate long vowel
We use a final silent -eto indicate that the stressed vowel is long:
long vowel | short vowel |
hate, fate | hat, fat |
theme, impede | them, fed |
dine, bite | din, bit |
There are some common exceptions:
come | have | none | there |
done | live(as a verb) | one | were |
give | love | some | where |
gone |
British and American English Spelling
Here are some common differences between British andAmerican English spelling. A good learner’sdictionary will give information about other spelling differences:
British English | American English |
analyse | analyze |
aeroplane | airplane |
centre | center |
cheque(bank) | check |
colour | color |
criticise | criticize |
defence | defense |
labour | labor |
neighbour | neighbor |
programme | program |
theatre | theater |