Defining relative clauses
We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.
We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g.who, that, which, whoseandwhom) to introduce a defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is inbold, and the person or thing being referred to isunderlined.):
They’rethe peoplewho want to buy our house.
Here aresome cellswhich have been affected.
They should give the moneyto somebodywho they think needs the treatment most.
[talking about an actress]
She’s now playinga womanwhose son was killed in the First World War.
In defining relative clauses we often usethatinstead ofwho, whomorwhich. This is very common in informal speaking:
They’rethe peoplethatwant to buy our house.
Here aresome cellsthathave been affected.
See also:
Relative pronouns
Subject or object
The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:
They’rethe peoplewho/that bought our house.(The people bought our house.The peopleis the subject.)
They’rethe peoplewho/that she met at Jon’s party.(She met the people.The peopleis the object.)
Here aresome cellswhich/that show abnormality.(Some cells show abnormality.Some cellsis the subject.)
Here aresome cellswhich/that the researcher has identified.(The researcher has identified some cells.Some cellsis the object.)
No relative pronoun
We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:
They’rethe peopleshe met at Jon’s party.
Here aresome cellsthe researcher has identified.
See also:
No relative pronoun
Punctuation
In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:
This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Not:This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.
Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:
She’sthe ladywholentme her phone.(whois the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronounshe)
Not:She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.
There are now onlytwo schools in the areathatactuallyteachLatin.(thatis the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronounthey)
Not:There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.
When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:
We had a lovely meal atthe placewhichPhilrecommended.(whichis the object of the relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronounit)
Not:We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.
Non-defining relative clauses
We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.
We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whoseorwhom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is inbold, and the person or thing being referred to isunderlined.)
Clare,who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Not:Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening forlung and stomach cancers,which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.
Alice,who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the autumn.
We don’t usethatto introduce a non-defining relative clause:
Allen,who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
Not:Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.
See also:
Relative pronouns
Punctuation
In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:
Etheridge,who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis,whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.
In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:
Unlike American firms– which typically supply all three big American car makers –Japanese ones traditionally work exclusively with one maker.(formal)
And this woman– who I’d nevermet before –came up and spoke to me.(informal)
Defining or non-defining relative clauses?
Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different meanings.
non-defining | defining |
He has only one brother, and that brother works at the supermarket. |
He has more than one brother. The one I’m talking about works at the supermarket. |
The money is intended for local charities. All these local charities help the homeless. |
The money is intended for local charities. Some of these local charities help the homeless. There are other local charities as well as these. |
The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we can’t leave out the relative clause. The information in a non-defining relative clause is extra information which isn’t essential, so we can leave out the relative clause.
| A defining relative clause which we can’t leave out; without this information we do not know which soldier the speaker is referring to. |
| Non-defining relative clauses which we can leave out: The tour party was weakened when Gordon Hamilton withdrew yesterday because of a back injury. |
We can usethatinstead ofwho, whomorwhichin defining relative clauses, but not in non-defining relative clauses:
I think anyonewhospeaks in public is nervous beforehand.
I think anyonethatspeaks in public is nervous beforehand.
Her car,whichwas very old, broke down after just five miles.
Not:Her car, that was very old, broke down after just five miles.
See also:
Relative pronouns
Relative clauses: typical errors